diff --git a/src/data/fleetModelInstances.js b/src/data/fleetModelInstances.js
index fbd710193..e3147c812 100644
--- a/src/data/fleetModelInstances.js
+++ b/src/data/fleetModelInstances.js
@@ -46,6 +46,11 @@ export function createFleetModel(
 
 const tintShaders = new Map();
 
+/** Models under the NVG/FLIR styles render unlit, as aircraft models do. */
+const IR_UNLIT_SHADER = new Cesium.CustomShader({
+  lightingModel: Cesium.LightingModel.UNLIT,
+});
+
 /**
  * The custom shader that paints a route colour where a transit model's
  * `_TINT` vertex attribute marks it: drawn colour = vertex colour ×
@@ -131,23 +136,34 @@ const scratchScale = new Cesium.Cartesian3();
  * `modelOwnsVisual` back from each item and hides that icon.
  *
  * Each frame the layer passes its vehicles as items:
- * `{position, headingDeg, spec, tint, pickId, show}`, `position` the point
- * the model's origin stands on (the waterline, the road or rail top; the
- * spec's `elevationM` is added here), `tint` a Cesium.Color for a tinted
- * model's route colour (or null), `show` false to keep it hidden.
+ * `{position, headingDeg, spec, tint, pickId, show, groundLiftM}`,
+ * `position` the point the model's origin stands on (the waterline, the road
+ * or rail top; the spec's `elevationM` is added here), `groundLiftM` any lift
+ * the layer's icon carries above that point (taken off again), `tint` a
+ * Cesium.Color for a tinted model's route colour (or null), `show` false to
+ * keep it hidden.
+ *
+ * Under the luminance-mapped NVG/FLIR styles (`irBoost`) models render
+ * unlit flat white, as aircraft models do. With `waterline`, each model is
+ * clipped at its origin's horizontal plane and only the part above it is
+ * drawn: a ship's hull below the waterline would otherwise show through a
+ * plain globe, which Cesium does not depth-test models against.
  * @param {object} options
  * @param {object} options.viewer Cesium viewer.
- * @param {() => object|null} [options.display] `{models3d, models3dMode}`.
+ * @param {() => object|null} [options.display] `{models3d, models3dMode,
+ *   irBoost}`.
  * @param {object} options.policy `{altitudeCeilingM, minimumPixelSize,
  *   cap, capAll, addM, addAllM, keepM, keepAllM, intervalMs}`.
  * @param {(url: string) => string} [options.resolveAsset]
  * @param {(spec: object, options: object) => Promise<object>} [options.createModel]
+ * @param {boolean} [options.waterline] Clip each model at its waterline.
  * @returns {object}
  */
 export function createFleetModelLayer({
   viewer,
   display = () => null,
   policy,
+  waterline = false,
   resolveAsset = (url) => url,
   createModel = (spec, options) =>
     createFleetModel(spec, options, { resolveAsset }),
@@ -163,6 +179,8 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
   let lastEligibilityAt = -Infinity;
   let eligible = new Set();
   let settling = 0;
+  /** Whether the models drawn now were built for the NVG/FLIR styles. */
+  let irBoost = false;
   const scratchHpr = new Cesium.HeadingPitchRoll();
   const scratchSphere = new Cesium.BoundingSphere(Cesium.Cartesian3.ZERO, 1);
   const scratchCarto = new Cesium.Cartographic();
@@ -177,7 +195,7 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
   }
 
   function releaseAll() {
-    for (const id of [...models.keys()]) release(id);
+    for (const id of models.keys()) release(id);
     pending.clear();
     generation += 1;
   }
@@ -193,11 +211,23 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
   }
 
   function shaderFor(item) {
+    if (irBoost) return IR_UNLIT_SHADER;
     return item.spec.tinted && item.tint
       ? fleetTintShader(item.tint)
       : undefined;
   }
 
+  /** The clipping that keeps a model's part above its waterline. */
+  function waterlineClipping() {
+    return new Cesium.ClippingPlaneCollection({
+      // The planes sit in the model matrix's frame: its origin is the
+      // waterline and its Z axis the local vertical, so the plane z = 0 with
+      // its normal up keeps the hull above the water.
+      planes: [new Cesium.ClippingPlane(Cesium.Cartesian3.UNIT_Z, 0)],
+      edgeWidth: 0,
+    });
+  }
+
   async function ensure(id, item, cap) {
     const key = item.spec.key;
     const current = models.get(id);
@@ -213,6 +243,14 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
         minimumPixelSize: policy.minimumPixelSize,
         scale: item.spec.scale,
         customShader: shaderFor(item),
+        ...(irBoost
+          ? {
+              color: Cesium.Color.WHITE,
+              colorBlendMode: Cesium.ColorBlendMode.MIX,
+              colorBlendAmount: 1,
+            }
+          : {}),
+        ...(waterline ? { clippingPlanes: waterlineClipping() } : {}),
         id: item.pickId ?? id,
       });
     } catch {
@@ -232,7 +270,8 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
     }
     model.id = item.pickId ?? id;
     model._gevSpecKey = key;
-    model._gevTint = item.spec.tinted ? item.tint : null;
+    model._gevTint = item.spec.tinted && !irBoost ? item.tint : null;
+    model._gevIrBoost = irBoost;
     // Admitted, not yet the visual: placement turns it on.
     model.show = false;
     collection.add(model);
@@ -272,14 +311,14 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
       addDistSq: addM * addM,
       isModeled: (id) => models.has(id),
     });
-    for (const id of [...models.keys(), ...pending.keys()])
-      if (!eligible.has(id)) release(id);
+    for (const id of models.keys()) if (!eligible.has(id)) release(id);
+    for (const id of pending.keys()) if (!eligible.has(id)) release(id);
     for (const id of eligible) void ensure(id, items.get(id), cap);
   }
 
   /** Where the model's origin stands: the item's point raised by the spec's elevation. */
   function placement(item) {
-    const lift = item.spec.elevationM || 0;
+    const lift = (item.spec.elevationM || 0) - (item.groundLiftM || 0);
     if (!lift) return item.position;
     const carto = Cesium.Cartographic.fromCartesian(
       item.position,
@@ -320,6 +359,14 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
         for (const item of items.values()) item.modelOwnsVisual = false;
         return false;
       }
+      // A model's look under NVG/FLIR is set when it is built (a custom
+      // shader on a ready model does not take), so a style change rebuilds.
+      const boost = prefs.irBoost === true;
+      if (boost !== irBoost) {
+        releaseAll();
+        irBoost = boost;
+        lastEligibilityAt = -Infinity;
+      }
       if (nowMs - lastEligibilityAt >= policy.intervalMs) {
         lastEligibilityAt = nowMs;
         refreshEligibility(items, prefs);
@@ -345,7 +392,7 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
           lastEligibilityAt = -Infinity;
           continue;
         }
-        const tint = item.spec.tinted ? item.tint : null;
+        const tint = item.spec.tinted && !irBoost ? item.tint : null;
         if (tint && !Cesium.Color.equals(tint, model._gevTint)) {
           model.customShader = fleetTintShader(tint);
           model._gevTint = tint;
@@ -366,7 +413,7 @@ export function createFleetModelLayer({
         item.modelOwnsVisual = true;
         drawn = true;
       }
-      for (const id of [...models.keys()]) if (!items.has(id)) release(id);
+      for (const id of models.keys()) if (!items.has(id)) release(id);
       return drawn;
     },
 
diff --git a/src/data/fleetModelInstances.test.mjs b/src/data/fleetModelInstances.test.mjs
index 298ef56df..1892e1751 100644
--- a/src/data/fleetModelInstances.test.mjs
+++ b/src/data/fleetModelInstances.test.mjs
@@ -358,3 +358,130 @@ test('Vessels, Transit and Rail draw fleet models under the shared 3D toggle', (
     'Local ADS-B, Vessels, Transit and Rail follow the Flights 3D toggle',
   );
 });
+
+/** A layer whose models are all ready as soon as they are created. */
+function readyLayer({ display, waterline = false } = {}) {
+  const viewer = fakeViewer();
+  const created = [];
+  const layer = createFleetModelLayer({
+    viewer,
+    display: () => display,
+    policy: POLICY,
+    waterline,
+    createModel: async (spec, options) => {
+      const model = fakeModel(options);
+      model.ready = true;
+      created.push(model);
+      return model;
+    },
+  });
+  return { layer, created };
+}
+
+test('a model stands on the floor its icon is lifted above', async () => {
+  const { layer, created } = readyLayer({ display: { models3d: true } });
+  const tram = transitModelSpec(set, { mode: 'tram' });
+  const item = itemAt(10, tram, { pickId: 't', groundLiftM: 1.5 });
+  const items = new Map([['t', item]]);
+  layer.frame(items, 0);
+  await flush();
+  layer.frame(items, 100);
+  const origin = Cesium.Matrix4.getTranslation(
+    created[0].modelMatrix,
+    new Cesium.Cartesian3(),
+  );
+  const drop =
+    Cesium.Cartographic.fromCartesian(item.position).height -
+    Cesium.Cartographic.fromCartesian(origin).height;
+  assert.ok(Math.abs(drop - 1.5) < 1e-3, `dropped ${drop} m`);
+  layer.destroy();
+});
+
+test('under NVG/FLIR models are rebuilt unlit white, and rebuilt again on exit', async () => {
+  const display = { models3d: true, irBoost: false };
+  const { layer, created } = readyLayer({ display });
+  const tram = transitModelSpec(set, { mode: 'tram' });
+  const items = new Map([
+    ['t', itemAt(10, tram, { pickId: 't', tint: Cesium.Color.RED })],
+  ]);
+  layer.frame(items, 0);
+  await flush();
+  assert.equal(created[0].customShader, fleetTintShader(Cesium.Color.RED));
+  display.irBoost = true;
+  layer.frame(items, 100);
+  assert.ok(created[0].destroyed, 'the lit model is released');
+  await flush();
+  const boosted = created[1];
+  assert.equal(boosted.customShader.lightingModel, Cesium.LightingModel.UNLIT);
+  assert.ok(Cesium.Color.equals(boosted.color, Cesium.Color.WHITE));
+  assert.equal(boosted.colorBlendAmount, 1);
+  display.irBoost = false;
+  layer.frame(items, 200);
+  await flush();
+  assert.ok(boosted.destroyed);
+  assert.equal(created[2].customShader, fleetTintShader(Cesium.Color.RED));
+  layer.destroy();
+});
+
+test('a waterline layer clips each model at its origin, keeping the part above', async () => {
+  const { layer, created } = readyLayer({
+    display: { models3d: true },
+    waterline: true,
+  });
+  const ship = vesselModelSpec(set, { type: '70', length: 200, beam: 32 });
+  layer.frame(new Map([['s', itemAt(10, ship, { pickId: 's' })]]), 0);
+  await flush();
+  const planes = created[0].clippingPlanes;
+  assert.ok(planes instanceof Cesium.ClippingPlaneCollection);
+  assert.equal(planes.length, 1);
+  const plane = planes.get(0);
+  assert.equal(plane.distance, 0);
+  assert.ok(Cesium.Cartesian3.equals(plane.normal, Cesium.Cartesian3.UNIT_Z));
+  assert.equal(planes.unionClippingRegions, false);
+  // Cesium keeps a point where normal · p + distance >= 0: above the waterline.
+  const above = Cesium.Cartesian3.dot(
+    plane.normal,
+    new Cesium.Cartesian3(0, 0, 3),
+  );
+  const below = Cesium.Cartesian3.dot(
+    plane.normal,
+    new Cesium.Cartesian3(0, 0, -3),
+  );
+  assert.ok(above + plane.distance > 0 && below + plane.distance < 0);
+  layer.destroy();
+
+  const plain = readyLayer({ display: { models3d: true } });
+  plain.layer.frame(
+    new Map([['t', itemAt(10, transitModelSpec(set, { mode: 'tram' }))]]),
+    0,
+  );
+  await flush();
+  assert.equal(plain.created[0].clippingPlanes, undefined, 'others unclipped');
+  plain.layer.destroy();
+});
+
+test('a vehicle drawn as its model keeps its card and its detection entry', () => {
+  const read = (file) =>
+    fs.readFileSync(new URL(`../../${file}`, import.meta.url), 'utf8');
+  assert.match(
+    read('src/layers/transit/selection.js'),
+    /marker\?\.show !== false \|\| entry\.modelOwnsVisual === true/,
+  );
+  assert.match(
+    read('src/layers/rail/selection.js'),
+    /entry\.marker\?\.show !== false \|\| entry\.modelOwnsVisual === true/,
+  );
+  assert.match(
+    read('src/layers/transit/queries.js'),
+    /marker\.show === false && entry\.modelOwnsVisual !== true/,
+  );
+  assert.match(
+    read('src/layers/vessels/queries.js'),
+    /!visual\.billboard\.show &&\s*!visual\.modelOwnsVisual/,
+  );
+  assert.match(
+    read('src/layers/transit/rendering.js'),
+    /entry\.mode === 'unknown'/,
+    'a vehicle of unknown mode keeps its icon',
+  );
+});
diff --git a/src/data/modelScale.test.mjs b/src/data/modelScale.test.mjs
index 908b45001..e11bd0783 100644
--- a/src/data/modelScale.test.mjs
+++ b/src/data/modelScale.test.mjs
@@ -288,3 +288,11 @@ test('civilian and military globe-view aircraft retain the established 3.0 near
     );
   }
 });
+
+test('a layer asking every tick gets one cached spec per type and category', async () => {
+  const { aircraftLayerModelSpec } = await import('../layers/flights/modelSpec.js');
+  const a = aircraftLayerModelSpec({ typeCode: 'A320' }, set);
+  assert.equal(aircraftLayerModelSpec({ typeCode: 'A320' }, set), a);
+  assert.notEqual(aircraftLayerModelSpec({ typeCode: 'B744' }, set), a);
+  assert.ok(Object.isFrozen(a));
+});
diff --git a/src/layers/flights/modelSpec.js b/src/layers/flights/modelSpec.js
index f063d8827..b9aa95379 100644
--- a/src/layers/flights/modelSpec.js
+++ b/src/layers/flights/modelSpec.js
@@ -37,17 +37,29 @@ export const UNLOADED_AIRCRAFT_MODEL_SPEC = Object.freeze({
  */
 export function aircraftLayerModelSpec(aircraft, set = fleetModelSet()) {
   if (!set) return UNLOADED_AIRCRAFT_MODEL_SPEC;
-  const spec = aircraftModelSpec(set, {
-    typeCode: aircraft?.typeCode ?? aircraft?.type ?? null,
-    category: aircraft?.category ?? null,
-  });
-  return Object.freeze({
-    ...spec,
-    bellyM: spec.clearanceM,
-    blendAmount: MODEL_COLOR_BLEND_AMOUNT,
-  });
+  // Layers ask on every tick; each type and category is resolved once per set.
+  let cache = specCaches.get(set);
+  if (!cache) specCaches.set(set, (cache = new Map()));
+  const key = aircraftModelSpecCacheKey(aircraft);
+  let layerSpec = cache.get(key);
+  if (!layerSpec) {
+    const spec = aircraftModelSpec(set, {
+      typeCode: aircraft?.typeCode ?? aircraft?.type ?? null,
+      category: aircraft?.category ?? null,
+    });
+    layerSpec = Object.freeze({
+      ...spec,
+      bellyM: spec.clearanceM,
+      blendAmount: MODEL_COLOR_BLEND_AMOUNT,
+    });
+    cache.set(key, layerSpec);
+  }
+  return layerSpec;
 }
 
+/** @type {WeakMap<object, Map<string, object>>} set -> cache key -> spec */
+const specCaches = new WeakMap();
+
 /**
  * Cache key of an aircraft's model spec: what selects its model.
  * @param {object|null|undefined} aircraft
diff --git a/src/layers/rail/rendering.js b/src/layers/rail/rendering.js
index 15d2bb742..db124b752 100644
--- a/src/layers/rail/rendering.js
+++ b/src/layers/rail/rendering.js
@@ -696,7 +696,9 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
   // aircraft layers' icon-to-model rules (services.fleet). The fleet set
   // loads once, up front, when the layer starts.
   let fleetModels = null;
+  /** Items drawn last frame, and the map the next frame's are gathered into. */
   let modelItems = new Map();
+  let spareItems = new Map();
   let modelCandidatesAtMs = -Infinity;
 
   /** Load the fleet set and create the layer's models (on enable). */
@@ -724,7 +726,13 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
   function modelItem(entry, set) {
     let item = modelItems.get(entry.key);
     if (!item || item.entry !== entry)
-      item = { entry, pickId: entry.key, modelOwnsVisual: false };
+      item = {
+        entry,
+        pickId: entry.key,
+        modelOwnsVisual: false,
+        // Markers are drawn this far above the track; a model stands on it.
+        groundLiftM: GROUND_FLOOR_LIFT_M,
+      };
     const specKey = `${entry.category}|${entry.railMode}`;
     if (item.specKey !== specKey) {
       item.specKey = specKey;
@@ -744,15 +752,16 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
     if (!fleetModels) return;
     if (!fleetModels.active() || state._trains.size === 0) {
       if (modelItems.size) {
-        fleetModels.frame(new Map(), performance.now());
         for (const item of modelItems.values()) handBack(item.entry);
-        modelItems = new Map();
+        modelItems.clear();
+        fleetModels.frame(modelItems, performance.now());
       }
       return;
     }
     const set = fleetModelSet();
     const now = performance.now();
-    const next = new Map();
+    const next = spareItems;
+    next.clear();
     if (now - modelCandidatesAtMs >= MODEL_CANDIDATES_MS) {
       modelCandidatesAtMs = now;
       const camera = state._viewer?.camera;
@@ -781,6 +790,7 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
     }
     for (const [key, item] of modelItems)
       if (next.get(key) !== item) handBack(item.entry);
+    spareItems = modelItems;
     modelItems = next;
     fleetModels.frame(modelItems, now);
     for (const item of modelItems.values()) {
@@ -796,7 +806,8 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
   /** Drop every model (layer disabled); `destroy` also removes the collection. */
   function stopModels(destroy = false) {
     for (const item of modelItems.values()) item.entry.modelOwnsVisual = false;
-    modelItems = new Map();
+    modelItems.clear();
+    spareItems.clear();
     modelCandidatesAtMs = -Infinity;
     if (destroy) {
       fleetModels?.destroy();
diff --git a/src/layers/rail/selection.js b/src/layers/rail/selection.js
index 4f4564bc6..8a4dc3a87 100644
--- a/src/layers/rail/selection.js
+++ b/src/layers/rail/selection.js
@@ -19,10 +19,15 @@ import { t } from '../../i18n/index.js';
 export function createSelection({ state, services, parts }) {
   const { governorRequestRender } = services.render;
 
-  /** The card's anchor: the marker's current position, read on every paint. */
+  /**
+   * The card's anchor: the marker's current position, read on every paint,
+   * whether the train is drawn as its marker or as its 3D model.
+   */
   function anchorFor(entry) {
     return () => {
-      const p = entry.marker?.show !== false ? entry.marker?.position : null;
+      const drawn =
+        entry.marker?.show !== false || entry.modelOwnsVisual === true;
+      const p = drawn ? entry.marker?.position : null;
       return p && Number.isFinite(p.x) && Number.isFinite(p.y) ? p : null;
     };
   }
diff --git a/src/layers/transit/queries.js b/src/layers/transit/queries.js
index 7a9f2e074..32633e775 100644
--- a/src/layers/transit/queries.js
+++ b/src/layers/transit/queries.js
@@ -129,7 +129,9 @@ export function createQueries({ state, parts }) {
     const visible = [];
     for (const entry of state._visible) {
       const marker = entry.marker;
-      if (!marker?.position || marker.show === false) continue;
+      // A vehicle drawn as its 3D model is present though its marker is hidden.
+      if (!marker?.position) continue;
+      if (marker.show === false && entry.modelOwnsVisual !== true) continue;
       visible.push(entry);
     }
     let chosen = visible;
diff --git a/src/layers/transit/rendering.js b/src/layers/transit/rendering.js
index 7ba55c47f..0888945a4 100644
--- a/src/layers/transit/rendering.js
+++ b/src/layers/transit/rendering.js
@@ -468,7 +468,11 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
   // icon-to-model rules (services.fleet). The fleet set loads once, up front,
   // when the layer starts.
   let fleetModels = null;
+  /** Items drawn last frame, and the map the next frame's are gathered into. */
   let modelItems = new Map();
+  let spareItems = new Map();
+  /** The lift icons are drawn with above the floor; a model stands on the floor. */
+  const groundLiftM = services.ground?.GROUND_FLOOR_LIFT_M || 0;
 
   /** Load the fleet set and create the layer's models (on enable). */
   function startModels() {
@@ -500,19 +504,27 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
     if (!fleetModels) return;
     if (!fleetModels.active() || state._vehicles.size === 0) {
       if (modelItems.size) {
-        fleetModels.frame(new Map(), performance.now());
         for (const item of modelItems.values()) handBack(item.entry);
-        modelItems = new Map();
+        modelItems.clear();
+        fleetModels.frame(modelItems, performance.now());
       }
       return;
     }
     const set = fleetModelSet();
-    const next = new Map();
+    const next = spareItems;
+    next.clear();
     for (const entry of state._visible) {
-      if (!entry.marker || !entry.hasRendered) continue;
+      // A vehicle of no known mode keeps its icon: no model says what it is.
+      if (!entry.marker || !entry.hasRendered || entry.mode === 'unknown')
+        continue;
       let item = modelItems.get(entry.key);
       if (!item || item.entry !== entry) {
-        item = { entry, pickId: entry.key, modelOwnsVisual: false };
+        item = {
+          entry,
+          pickId: entry.key,
+          modelOwnsVisual: false,
+          groundLiftM,
+        };
       }
       if (item.mode !== entry.mode) {
         item.mode = entry.mode;
@@ -527,6 +539,7 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
     }
     for (const [key, item] of modelItems)
       if (next.get(key) !== item) handBack(item.entry);
+    spareItems = modelItems;
     modelItems = next;
     fleetModels.frame(modelItems, performance.now());
     for (const item of modelItems.values()) {
@@ -542,7 +555,8 @@ export function createRendering({ state, services, parts }) {
   /** Drop every model (layer disabled); `destroy` also removes the collection. */
   function stopModels(destroy = false) {
     for (const item of modelItems.values()) item.entry.modelOwnsVisual = false;
-    modelItems = new Map();
+    modelItems.clear();
+    spareItems.clear();
     if (destroy) {
       fleetModels?.destroy();
       fleetModels = null;
diff --git a/src/layers/transit/selection.js b/src/layers/transit/selection.js
index fd066ca55..d557b1b99 100644
--- a/src/layers/transit/selection.js
+++ b/src/layers/transit/selection.js
@@ -24,14 +24,16 @@ export function createSelection({ state, services, parts }) {
    * (the tracked-aircraft readout uses the same), so the anchor moves with the
    * sprite at frame rate, through poll arrivals, settling, a late floor and a
    * reset alike, with no per-frame work here. Null when there is nothing to
-   * anchor to: a hidden or removed marker draws no card.
+   * anchor to: a hidden or removed marker draws no card, unless the vehicle's
+   * 3D model is drawing it in the marker's place.
    * @param {object} entry
    * @returns {() => Cesium.Cartesian3|null}
    */
   function anchorFor(entry) {
     return () => {
       const marker = entry.marker;
-      const p = marker?.show !== false ? marker?.position : null;
+      const drawn = marker?.show !== false || entry.modelOwnsVisual === true;
+      const p = drawn ? marker?.position : null;
       return p &&
         Number.isFinite(p.x) &&
         Number.isFinite(p.y) &&
diff --git a/src/layers/vessels/queries.js b/src/layers/vessels/queries.js
index d927def6d..d204bfadb 100644
--- a/src/layers/vessels/queries.js
+++ b/src/layers/vessels/queries.js
@@ -664,7 +664,13 @@ export function createQueries({
         if ((idx - start) % stride !== 0) continue;
         const record = records[idx];
         const visual = components.rendering.getVisual(record);
-        if (visual.billboard && !visual.billboard.show) continue;
+        // A vessel drawn as its model is present though its chevron is hidden.
+        if (
+          visual.billboard &&
+          !visual.billboard.show &&
+          !visual.modelOwnsVisual
+        )
+          continue;
         const position = visual.billboard?.position || visual.position;
         if (!position) continue;
         result.push({
diff --git a/src/layers/vessels/rendering.js b/src/layers/vessels/rendering.js
index a5c27d637..45be14033 100644
--- a/src/layers/vessels/rendering.js
+++ b/src/layers/vessels/rendering.js
@@ -224,8 +224,11 @@ export function createRendering({
   // on the aircraft layers' icon-to-model rules (services.fleet). The fleet
   // set loads once, up front, when the layer starts.
   let fleetModels = null;
+  /** Items drawn last frame, and the map the next frame's are gathered into. */
   let modelItems = new Map();
+  let spareItems = new Map();
   let modelCandidatesAtMs = -Infinity;
+  const modelOccluder = new Cesium.EllipsoidalOccluder(Cesium.Ellipsoid.WGS84);
 
   function ensureModels(viewer) {
     const fleet = services.fleet;
@@ -238,96 +241,109 @@ export function createRendering({
       display: fleet.display,
       policy: fleet.policy,
       resolveAsset: fleet.resolveAsset,
+      // A hull below the waterline would show through a plain globe.
+      waterline: true,
     });
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Whether a vessel's chevron is drawn: on the camera's side of the Earth,
+   * not the bridge camera's own vessel, and not drawn by its model. The
+   * visibility pass and the model handoff both decide by this.
+   */
+  function billboardShown(record, occluder) {
+    const visual = getVisual(record);
+    return (
+      isVisible(visual.surfacePosition, occluder) &&
+      record.id !== state.cockpitSubjectId &&
+      !visual.modelOwnsVisual
+    );
+  }
+
   /** The model item for `record`, its spec rebuilt only when its type or size changes. */
   function modelItem(record, set) {
     let item = modelItems.get(record.id);
+    if (!item || item.record !== record)
+      item = { record, pickId: record, tint: null, modelOwnsVisual: false };
     const specKey = `${record.type}|${record.length}|${record.beam}|${record.name}`;
-    if (!item) {
-      item = { pickId: record, tint: null, modelOwnsVisual: false };
-      modelItems.set(record.id, item);
-    }
     if (item.specKey !== specKey) {
       item.specKey = specKey;
       item.spec = vesselModelSpec(set, record);
     }
-    const visual = getVisual(record);
-    item.record = record;
-    item.position = visual.waterline;
+    item.position = getVisual(record).waterline;
     item.headingDeg = vesselCourseDeg(record);
     item.show = record.id !== state.cockpitSubjectId;
     return item;
   }
 
-  /** Gather the vessels within the models' keep radius of the camera. */
-  function gatherModelItems(set, prefs) {
+  /** Gather the vessels within the models' keep radius of the camera into `into`. */
+  function gatherModelItems(set, into) {
     const camera = state.viewer?.camera;
+    if (!camera?.positionWC) return;
     const policy = services.fleet.policy;
     const keepM =
-      prefs?.models3dMode === 'all' ? policy.keepAllM : policy.keepM;
-    const next = new Map();
-    if (camera?.positionWC) {
-      const limitSq = keepM * keepM * 1.44;
-      for (const record of state.records.all) {
-        const visual = getVisual(record);
-        if (!visual.waterline) continue;
-        if (
-          Cesium.Cartesian3.distanceSquared(
-            camera.positionWC,
-            visual.waterline,
-          ) > limitSq
-        )
-          continue;
-        next.set(record.id, modelItem(record, set));
-      }
+      services.fleet.display?.()?.models3dMode === 'all'
+        ? policy.keepAllM
+        : policy.keepM;
+    const limitSq = keepM * keepM * 1.44;
+    for (const record of state.records.all) {
+      const waterline = getVisual(record).waterline;
+      if (!waterline) continue;
+      if (
+        Cesium.Cartesian3.distanceSquared(camera.positionWC, waterline) >
+        limitSq
+      )
+        continue;
+      into.set(record.id, modelItem(record, set));
     }
-    for (const [id, item] of modelItems)
-      if (!next.has(id)) handBackVisual(item);
-    modelItems = next;
   }
 
-  /** Give a vessel's icon back when its model no longer draws it. */
-  function handBackVisual(item) {
-    if (!item.ownedBillboard) return;
-    item.ownedBillboard = false;
-    const billboard = getVisual(item.record).billboard;
-    if (billboard)
-      billboard.show =
-        isVisible(getVisual(item.record).surfacePosition, makeOccluder()) &&
-        item.record.id !== state.cockpitSubjectId;
+  /** Give a vessel's chevron back when its model no longer draws it. */
+  function handBackVisual(record, occluder) {
+    const visual = getVisual(record);
+    if (!visual.modelOwnsVisual) return;
+    visual.modelOwnsVisual = false;
+    if (visual.billboard)
+      visual.billboard.show = billboardShown(record, occluder);
   }
 
   function updateModels() {
     if (!fleetModels) return;
+    const camera = state.viewer?.camera;
+    const occluder = camera?.positionWC ? modelOccluder : null;
+    if (occluder) occluder.cameraPosition = camera.positionWC;
     if (!fleetModels.active()) {
       if (modelItems.size) {
+        modelItems.clear();
         fleetModels.frame(modelItems, performance.now());
-        for (const item of modelItems.values()) handBackVisual(item);
-        modelItems = new Map();
+        for (const record of state.records.all)
+          handBackVisual(record, occluder);
       }
       return;
     }
     const set = fleetModelSet();
     const now = performance.now();
+    const next = spareItems;
+    next.clear();
     if (now - modelCandidatesAtMs >= MODEL_CANDIDATES_MS) {
       modelCandidatesAtMs = now;
-      gatherModelItems(set, services.fleet.display?.());
+      gatherModelItems(set, next);
     } else {
-      for (const [id, item] of modelItems) {
+      for (const [id, item] of modelItems)
         if (state.records.byId.get(id) === item.record)
-          modelItem(item.record, set);
-        else modelItems.delete(id);
-      }
+          next.set(id, modelItem(item.record, set));
     }
+    for (const [id, item] of modelItems)
+      if (next.get(id) !== item) handBackVisual(item.record, occluder);
+    spareItems = modelItems;
+    modelItems = next;
     fleetModels.frame(modelItems, now);
     for (const item of modelItems.values()) {
-      const billboard = getVisual(item.record).billboard;
+      const visual = getVisual(item.record);
       if (item.modelOwnsVisual) {
-        item.ownedBillboard = true;
-        if (billboard) billboard.show = false;
-      } else handBackVisual(item);
+        visual.modelOwnsVisual = true;
+        if (visual.billboard) visual.billboard.show = false;
+      } else handBackVisual(item.record, occluder);
     }
     if (fleetModels.settling) governorRequestRender('ais-vessels-models');
   }
@@ -336,6 +352,7 @@ export function createRendering({
     fleetModels?.destroy();
     fleetModels = null;
     modelItems = new Map();
+    spareItems = new Map();
     modelCandidatesAtMs = -Infinity;
   }
 
@@ -443,10 +460,11 @@ export function createRendering({
         const visible = isVisible(visual.surfacePosition, occluder);
         if (visual.billboard) {
           // The bridge camera sits on this sprite; showing it would fill the view.
+          // The same rule as billboardShown, its horizon test already made.
           visual.billboard.show =
             visible &&
             record.id !== state.cockpitSubjectId &&
-            !modelItems.get(record.id)?.ownedBillboard;
+            !visual.modelOwnsVisual;
           if (visible && doRotations && scene) {
             const rot = screenProjectedRotation(
               scene,
@@ -724,8 +742,9 @@ export function createRendering({
     fleetModels?.setVisible(show);
     if (!show && fleetModels) {
       fleetModels.clear();
-      for (const item of modelItems.values()) item.ownedBillboard = false;
-      modelItems = new Map();
+      for (const item of modelItems.values())
+        getVisual(item.record).modelOwnsVisual = false;
+      modelItems.clear();
     }
     vesselState._vesselOverlayHost.setVisible(VESSEL_OVERLAY_SOURCE_ID, show);
   }